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Prostate cancer - Diagnosis

Description

An in-depth report on the causes, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of prostate cancer.

Diagnosis:

There is great uncertainty and controversy over whether the benefits of regular screening for prostate cancer outweigh the risks for most men. Prostate cancer is often slow growing. Doctors cannot yet determine which early-stage tumors pose a risk of being aggressive and need treatment, and which tumors should be left alone. The concern is that routine screening for early detection of tumors may lead to invasive and unnecessary treatment.

In general, the current consensus is that there is no “one size fits all” guideline for who should receive prostate cancer screening and at what age. Before deciding to be tested, men need to discuss the pros and cons of screening with their doctors.

Candidates for Annual Screening. The best age to start annual screening is under debate. Major medical organizations generally recommend that:

  • Men ages 50 - 75 should be offered annual screening with the PSA test and digital rectal exam. However, the United States Preventive Services Task Force notes that there is insufficient evidence to determine whether routine prostate cancer screening has benefits. If a man chooses to be tested, or would like the doctor to make the decision, he should be screened yearly with a PSA test and digital rectal exam.
  • Men with a family history of prostate cancer and all African-American men should consider annual screening at about age 40 - 45.
  • PSA testing is not recommended for men over age 75. Because of shortened lifespan, responding to abnormal PSA results in this age group may lead to overly aggressive treatment.

Standard Screening Tests for Early Detection

Two standard tests are used for early detection of prostate cancer:

  • PSA test. The PSA blood test measures the level of a protein called prostate-specific antigen. It is able to detect early prostate cancer, although it has limitations.
  • Digital rectal examination (DRE). The DRE is a physical examination. The doctor inserts a gloved and lubricated finger into the patient's rectum and feels the prostate for bumps or other abnormalities.
Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men in the United States. Prostate cancer forms in the prostate gland, and can sometimes be felt on digital rectal examination. This is one of the purposes of the digital rectal exam.
Digital rectal exam

PSA Test Limitations. Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is a protein produced in the prostate gland that keeps semen in liquid form. Prostate cancer cells appear to produce this protein in elevated quantities. Measuring PSA levels increases the chance for detecting the presence of cancer when it is microscopic. There are many unresolved questions surrounding PSA testing. The test is not accurate enough to either rule out or confirm the presence of cancer. PSA levels can be increased by various factors other than prostate cancer, including benign prostatic hyperplasia, prostatitis, advanced age, and ejaculation within 48 hours of the test. Relying too much on the test can lead to unnecessary biopsies. Not relying on it enough may miss cancers.

PSA screening may result in the detection of some possible cancers that would never have bothered the patient and would never have posed a threat to his life. Two major studies published in 2009 found that PSA screening saves few if any lives. As a result, the American Cancer Society does not recommend routine PSA testing, although individual men may choose to be tested.



Click the icon to see an image of a PSA blood test.

Tests to Diagnose Prostate Cancer

Biopsy. If cancer is suspected, the doctor will order a biopsy. Only a biopsy, in which a tiny sample of prostate tissue is surgically removed, can actually confirm a diagnosis of prostate cancer. A biopsy is usually performed to confirm or rule out cancer based on a combination of PSA test levels, findings on the DRE, family history, and patient ' s age and ethnicity. If a biopsy gives a negative result but the doctor still suspects cancer, repeat biopsies may be performed.

An ultrasound procedure called transrectal ultrasonography (TRUS) may be used to help the doctor see where to take the needle biopsy. Ultrasound is not effective as a diagnostic tool by itself because it cannot differentiate very well between benign inflammations and cancer.

Tests after Cancer is Diagnosed

PSA Levels and Velocity. Once cancer is diagnosed, PSA levels may help to determine its extent. If PSA levels are lower than 20 ng/mL, it is likely that the cancer has not spread to distant sites. PSA levels over 40 ng/mL are a strong indicator that cancer has metastasized (spread throughout the body). PSA levels are also monitored after treatments begin. Changes in the level can show if a treatment is working or if the cancer has come back.

Doctors also monitor how quickly PSA levels rise over time. This rate is called PSA velocity (PSAV). The PSAV may help determine when treatment should begin and which treatment should be used. A high rate of PSAV is considered to be 2 ng/mL a year. Recent research suggests that men with early-stage prostate cancer who have a slow PSAV are more likely to live longer than men with rapidly rising PSA levels.

Test for Metastasis. If the biopsy indicates cancer, the doctor will order other tests to determine whether or how far the cancer has spread:

  • Bone scans and x-rays may reveal whether the cancer has invaded the bones. To perform a bone scan, doctors inject low doses of a radioactive substance into the patient's vein, which accumulates in bones that have been damaged by cancer. A scanner then reveals how much of the radioactive material has accumulated.
  • Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans can further pinpoint the location of cancer that has spread beyond the prostate.


Click the icon to see an image of a CT scan.


Click the icon to see an image of a MRI.

Resources

References

Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Comparative effectiveness of therapies for clinically localized prostate cancer: executive summary no. 13. AHRQ Pub. No. 08-EHC010-1. February 2008.

American Urological Association. Prostate-specific antigen best practice statement: 2009 update. April 2009.

Andriole GL, Crawford ED, Grubb RL 3rd, Buys SS, Chia D, Church TR, et al. Mortality results from a randomized prostate-cancer screening trial. N Engl J Med. 2009 Mar 26;360(13):1310-9. Epub 2009 Mar 18.

Babaian RJ, Donnelly B, Bahn D, Baust JG, Dineen M, Ellis D, et al. Best practice statement on cryosurgery for the treatment of localized prostate cancer. J Urol. 2008 Nov;180(5):1993-2004. Epub 2008 Sep 25.

D'Amico AV, Chen MH, Renshaw AA, Loffredo M, Kantoff PW. Androgen suppression and radiation vs radiation alone for prostate cancer: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2008 Jan 23;299(3):289-95.

Gaziano JM, Glynn RJ, Christen WG, Kurth T, Belanger C, MacFadyen J, et al. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of prostate and total cancer in men: the Physicians' Health Study II randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009 Jan 7;301(1):52-62. Epub 2008 Dec 9.

Keating NL, O'Malley AJ, Smith MR. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease during androgen deprivation therapy for prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2006 Sep 20;24(27):4448-56.

Kramer BS, Hagerty KL, Justman S, Somerfield MR, Albertsen PC, Blot WJ, et al. Use of 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors for prostate cancer chemoprevention: American Society of Clinical Oncology/American Urological Association 2008 Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Oncol. 2009 Mar 20;27(9):1502-16. Epub 2009 Feb 24.

Lawson KA, Wright ME, Subar A, Mouw T, Hollenbeck A, Schatzkin A, et al. Multivitamin use and risk of prostate cancer in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007 May 16;99(10):754-64.

Lim LS, Sherin K; ACPM Prevention Practice Committee. Screening for prostate cancer in U.S. men ACPM position statement on preventive practice. Am J Prev Med. 2008 Feb;34(2):164-70.

Lin K, Lipsitz R, Miller T, Janakiraman S; U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Benefits and harms of prostate-specific antigen screening for prostate cancer: an evidence update for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2008 Aug 5;149(3):192-9.

Lippman SM, Klein EA, Goodman PJ, Lucia MS, Thompson IM, Ford LG, et al. Effect of selenium and vitamin E on risk of prostate cancer and other cancers: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT). JAMA. 2009 Jan 7;301(1):39-51. Epub 2008 Dec 9.

Litwin MS, Gore JL, Kwan L, Brandeis JM, Lee SP, Withers HR, et al. Quality of life after surgery, external beam irradiation, or brachytherapy for early-stage prostate cancer. Cancer. 2007 Jun 1;109(11):2239-47.

Loblaw DA, Virgo KS, Nam R, Somerfield MR, Ben-Josef E, Mendelson DS, et al. Initial hormonal management of androgen-sensitive metastatic, recurrent, or progressive prostate cancer: 2006 update of an American Society of Clinical Oncology practice guideline. J Clin Oncol. 2007 Apr 20;25(12):1596-605. Epub 2007 Apr 2.

Lu-Yao GL, Albertsen PC, Moore DF, Shih W, Lin Y, DiPaola RS, et al. Survival following primary androgen deprivation therapy among men with localized prostate cancer. JAMA. 2008 Jul 9;300(2):173-81.

National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology: prostate cancer. V.2.2009.

Sanda MG, Dunn RL, Michalski J, Sandler HM, Northouse L, Hembroff L, et al. Quality of life and satisfaction with outcome among prostate-cancer survivors. N Engl J Med. 2008 Mar 20;358(12):1250-61.

Schröder FH, Hugosson J, Roobol MJ, Tammela TL, Ciatto S, Nelen V, et al. Screening and prostate-cancer mortality in a randomized European study. N Engl J Med. 2009 Mar 26;360(13):1320-8. Epub 2009 Mar 18.

Shelley M, Wilt TJ, Coles B, Mason MD. Cryotherapy for localised prostate cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Jul 18;(3):CD005010.

Smith RA, Cokkinides V, Brawley OW. Cancer screening in the United States, 2009: a review of current American Cancer Society guidelines and issues in cancer screening. CA Cancer J Clin. 2009 Jan-Feb;59(1):27-41.

Thompson I, Thrasher JB, Aus G, Burnett AL, Canby-Hagino ED, et al. Guideline for the management of clinically localized prostate cancer: 2007 update. J Urol. 2007 Jun;177(6):2106-31.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for prostate cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2008 Aug 5;149(3):185-91.

Van Patten CL, de Boer JG, Tomlinson Guns ES. Diet and dietary supplement intervention trials for the prevention of prostate cancer recurrence: a review of the randomized controlled trial evidence. J Urol. 2008 Dec;180(6):2314-21; discussion 2721-2. Epub 2008 Oct 18.

Walsh PC, DeWeese TL, Eisenberger MA. Clinical practice. Localized prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2007 Dec 27;357(26):2696-705.

Walter LC, Bertenthal D, Lindquist K, Konety BR. PSA screening among elderly men with limited life expectancies. JAMA. 2006 Nov 15;296(19):2336-42.

Wilt TJ, MacDonald R, Hagerty K, Schellhammer P, Kramer BS.Five-alpha-reductase inhibitors for prostate cancer prevention. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008 Apr 16;(2):CD007091.

Wilt TJ, MacDonald R, Rutks I, Shamliyan TA, Taylor BC, Kane RL. Systematic review: comparative effectiveness and harms of treatments for clinically localized prostate cancer. Ann Intern Med. 2008 Mar 18;148(6):435-48. Epub 2008 Feb 4.

  • Reviewed last on: 8/5/2009
  • Harvey Simon, MD, Editor-in-Chief, Associate Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School; Physician, Massachusetts General Hospital. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.
The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
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