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Cervical cancer - Introduction

Description

An in-depth report on the causes, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cervical cancer.

Alternative Names

Dysplasia; Human papillomas virus; Pap smear

Introduction:

The cervix is the lower third portion of the uterus (womb). It serves as a neck to connect the uterus to the vagina. The opening of the cervix, called the os, remains small and narrow, except during childbirth when it widens to allow a baby to pass from the uterus into the vagina.

The uterus is a hollow muscular organ located in the female pelvis between the bladder and rectum. The ovaries produce the eggs that travel through the fallopian tubes. Once the egg has left the ovary it can be fertilized and implant itself in the lining of the uterus. The main function of the uterus is to nourish the developing fetus prior to birth.
Uterus

Cervical cancer develops in the thin layer of cells called the epithelium, which cover the cervix. Cells found in the this tissue have different shapes:

  • Squamous cells (flat and scaly). Most cervical cancer arises from changes in the squamous cells of the epithelium (squamous cell carcinoma).
  • Columnar cells (column-like). These cells line the cervical glands and cancers here are known as adenocarcinomas.
  • In rare cases, cancer can occur in cells that form the supportive tissue around the cervix (the stroma).

Cervical cancer usually begins slowly with precancerous abnormalities, and even if cancer develops, it generally progresses very gradually. Cervical cancer is the most preventable type of cancer and is very treatable in its early stages. Regular Pap tests and human papilloma virus (HPV) screening can help detect this disease early.

Precancerous Changes in the Cervix

Dysplasia. Dysplasia is a term that refers to a precancerous condition. It may become cancerous, but not always. In the case of cervical cancer, dysplasia indicates that the layer of cells that covers the cervix (squamous epithelial cells) are abnormal in size and shape and are beginning to grow.

Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia. Dysplastic changes seen on a Pap smear may indicate the presence of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). This means precancerous changes are found within the lining of the cervix. The changes are categorized according to severity: CIN I, CIN II, and CIN III.

  • With CIN I, there are mild abnormalities that rarely develop into cervical cancer. This condition may progress if untreated but often goes away without treatment.
  • In CIN II, the lesions often appear more aggressive under the microscope and may turn into cancer unless treated.
  • CIN III is the most aggressive form of dysplasia. If not removed, there is a high chance that it will turn into invasive cancer. CIN III includes carcinoma in situ (CIS). CIS is an early stage of non-invasive cancer -- the cells are confined within the tissue where they grew and have not yet invaded surrounding tissue. However since CIS can progress to invasive cancer, this condition should be treated as soon as possible.


Click the icon to see an image of cervical dysplasia.

Invasive Cervical Cancer

The cells of the epithelium rest on a very thin layer called the basement membrane. Invasive cervical cancer occurs when cancer cells in the epithelium cross this membrane and invade the stroma, the underlying supportive tissue of the cervix.

In later stages, the original cancer may spread to areas surrounding the uterus and cervix or near organs such as the bladder or rectum. It may also spread to distant sites in the body through the bloodstream or the lymph nodes.

Resources

References

Committee on Infectious Diseases. Prevention of human papillomavirus infection: provisional recommendations for immunization of girls and women with quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine. Pediatrics. 2007 Sep;120(3):666-8.

Dunne EF, Unger ER, Sternberg M, McQuillan G, Swan DC, Patel SS, et al. Prevalence of HPV infection among females in the United States. JAMA. 2007 Feb 28;297(8):813-9.

FUTURE II Study Group. Quadrivalent vaccine against human papillomavirus to prevent high-grade cervical lesions. N Engl J Med. 2007 May 10;356(19):1915-27.

Garland SM, Hernandez-Avila M, Wheeler CM, Perez G, Harper DM, Leodolter S, et al. Quadrivalent vaccine against human papillomavirus to prevent anogenital diseases. N Engl J Med. 2007 May 10;356(19):1928-43.

Hildesheim A, Herrero R, Wacholder S, Rodriguez AC, Solomon D, Bratti MC, et al. Effect of human papillomavirus 16/18 L1 viruslike particle vaccine among young women with preexisting infection: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2007 Aug 15;298(7):743-53.

Huang CM. Human papillomavirus and vaccination. Mayo Clin Proc. 2008;83(6):701-6.

Hunter MI, Monk BJ and Tewari KS. Cervical neoplasia in pregnancy. Part 1: screening and management of preinvasive disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008;199(1):3-9.

Hunter MI, Tewari K and Monk BJ. Cervical neoplasia in pregnancy. Part 2: current treatment of invasive disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008;199(1):10-8.

Long HJ 3rd, Laack NN and Gostout BS. Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cervical cancer. Mayo Clin Proc. 2007;82(12):1566-74.

Markowitz LE, Dunne EF, Saraiya M, Lawson HW, Chesson H, Unger ER; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2007 Mar 23;56(RR-2):1-24.

Mayrand MH, Duarte-Franco E, Rodrigues I, Walter SD, Hanley J, Ferenczy A, et al. Human papillomavirus DNA versus Papanicolaou screening tests for cervical cancer. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(16): 1579-88.

Naucler P, Ryd W, Tornberg S, Strand A, Wadell G, Elfgren K, et al. Human papillomavirus and Papanicolaou tests to screen for cervical cancer. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(16):1589-97.

Ronco G, Cuzick J, Pierotti P, Cariaggi MP, Dalla Palma P, Naldoni C, et al. Accuracy of liquid based versus conventional cytology: overall results of new technologies for cervical cancer screening: randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2007 Jul 7;335(7609):28. Epub 2007 May 21.

Saslow D, Castle PE, Cox JT, Davey DD, Einstein MH, Ferris DG, et al. American Cancer Society Guideline for human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine use to prevent cervical cancer and its precursors. CA Cancer J Clin. 2007 Jan-Feb;57(1):7-28.

Wright TC Jr., Massad LS, Dunton CJ, Spitzer M, Wilkinson EJ and Solomon D. 2006 consensus guidelines for the management of women with abnormal cervical cancer screening tests. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197(4): 346-55.

Wright TC Jr., Massad LS, Dunton CJ, Spitzer M, Wilkinson EJ and Solomon D. 2006 consensus guidelines for the management of women with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or adenocarcinoma in situ. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197(4): 340-5.

  • Reviewed last on: 10/6/2008
  • Harvey Simon, MD, Editor-in-Chief, Associate Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School; Physician, Massachusetts General Hospital. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.
The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
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